Solutions-Class 10-Science & Technology-1-Chapter-9-Carbon Compound-Maharashtra Board

The phenomenon in which compounds having different structural formulae have the same molecular formula is called structural isomerism.
Butane is represented by two different compounds as their structural formulae are different. These two different structural formulae have the same molecular formula i.e. C₄H₁₀ Butane

The chemical bond formed by sharing of two valence electron between the two atoms is called covalent bond. It is also known as molecular bond.

For example: Molecules that have covalent linkages are hydrogen H₂, nitrogen N₂, chlorine Cl₂, water H₂O, and ammonia NH₃.

A single line indicates a single bond between two atoms (i.e. involving one electron pair), double lines (=) indicate a double bond between two atoms (i.e. involving two electron pairs), and triple lines (≡) represent a triple bond (C≡O).

Example :

1) Hydrogen molecule is formed by covalent bonding.

Atomic number of hydrogen is 1, its atom contains 1 electron in K shell. It requires one more electron to complete the K shell and attain the configuration of helium (He). To meet this requirement two hydrogen atoms share their electrons with each other to form H₂ molecule. One covalent bond, that is a single bond is formed between two hydrogen atoms by sharing of two electrons.

2) The atomic number of oxygen is 8. The electronic configuration is (2,6) Oxygen has 6 electrons in the outermost shell.

It requires 2 electrons to complete the L shell and attain the configuration of neon(Ne) The O₂ molecule is formed by chemical combination of two oxygen atoms; On drawing the electron-dot structures of these two molecules, it becomes clear that the two oxygen atoms in O₂ molecule are joined with each other by two covalent bonds, that is, a double bond.

Hetero atom in a carbon compound: It is a compound formed by replacement of carbon and hydrogen by hetero atom in a compound. A hetero atom is any atom other than carbon or hydrogen. The atoms of these compounds substitute one or more hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon chain.

Typical heteroatoms are nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.
Example: 

1-Oxygen is hetero atom in ethanol (C₂H₅-O-H)
2-Nitrogen is the hetero atom in Ethyl amine ( CH₃-CH₂- NH₂)

The compound acquire specific chemical properties due to these hetero atoms or the groups of atoms that contain hetero atoms, irrespective of length and nature of the carbon chain in that
compound. Therefore these hetero atoms or groups of atoms containing hetero atoms are called the functional groups.
Example: Methyl alcohol, acetic acid.

• In methane (CH₄), when one hydrogen atom is replaced by an -OH group, methyl alcohol (CH₃OH), is formed. The -OH is known as the alcoholic functional group.
• Similarly, from methane (CH₄) when one hydrogen atom is replaced by -COOH group, acetic acid (CH₃COOH) is formed. The -COOH group is known as the carboxylic acid functional group.

Alkane: In hydrocarbon, the four valancies of carbon atoms are satisfied only by the single bonds such compounds are called alkane. Alkane is a saturated hydrocarbon. It is formed, when there is sharing of one electron pair between carbon atoms in a compound. In which the carbon atoms are linked to each other by single bonds. The general formula for alkane is C_NH_2N+2, where N is equal to no of carbon atom in a compound. They are chemically less reactive.
For example:

Unsaturated hydrocarbon: An unsaturated hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon containing at least one double or triple bond. They are chemically more reactive.
Example:
Alkenes - These unsaturated hydrocarbons are molecules that contain at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond. With the chemical formula consisting of C_nH_2n. The simplest alkene is ethylene.
Alkynes - These unsaturated hydrocarbons are molecules that contain at least one carbon-to-carbon triple bond.  Acetylenes are common examples of alkynes.

Homopolymer: A homopolymer is a polymer formed from same type of monomer units.
For examples: Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polyethylene(-CH₂- CH₂-)_n, Polystyrene are homopolymer.

Monomer: A monomer is a molecule that forms the basic unit for polymers. They may be considered as building blocks from which proteins are made. Monomers may bind to other monomer unit to form a repeating chain molecule. Monomers may be either natural or synthetic in origin.
For example: Ethylene, vinyl chloride, styrene etc.

Reduction: The addition of hydrogen to a substance is called reduction. The removal of oxygen from a substance is called reduction.
For example:
2Ag₂O → 4 Ag + O₂ ↑
In a reaction, silver oxide is changing to silver. That is, oxygen is being removed from silver oxide. Removal of oxygen from substance is called reduction, so silver oxide undergoes reduction.
NiO + H₂ → Ni + H₂O
In a reaction, Nickle oxide is changing to nickle. That is, oxygen is being removed from nickle oxide. Removal of oxygen from substance is called reduction, so nickle oxide undergoes reduction.In a reaction, hydrogen is changing to H₂O. That is,oxygen is being added to hydrogen. Addition of oxygen to a substance is called oxidation, so hydrogen undergoes oxidation.

Oxidant:
The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an oxidising agent or oxidant.
The substance which removes hydrogen is called an oxidising agent or oxidant.
For example:
CuO + H₂ → Cu +  H₂O
Oxidising agent=CuO
Reducing agent= H₂
Substance oxidised=H₂
Substance reduced=CuO

The number of items in the longest chain :4

Parent Alkane :Butane

IUPAC Name :nButane

The number of items in the longest chain :3

Parent Alkane :Propane

IUPAC Name : Propan-2-ol

The number of items in the longest chain :3

Parent Alkane :Propane

IUPAC Name : Propanoic acid

The number of items in the longest chain :2

Parent Alkane : Ethane

IUPAC Name : Ethanamine

The number of items in the longest chain :2

Parent Alkane : Ethane

IUPAC Name : Ethanal

The number of items in the longest chain :4

Parent Alkane : Butane

IUPAC Name : Butan-2-one

1. CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-OH → CH₃ -CH₂ -COOH = Oxidation reaction(acidic KMnO₄)

2. CH₃ -CH₂ -CH₃ → 3CO₂ + 4H₂O = Combusion reaction

3. CH₃ -CH = CH -CH₃ + Br₂ → CH₃ -CHBr - CHBr -CH₃ = Addition reaction

4. CH₃ -CH₃ + Cl₂ → CH₃ -CH₂ -Cl + HCl = Substitution reaction

5. CH₃ -CH₂ -CH₂ -CH₂ -OH → CH₃ -CH₂ -CH=CH₂ + H₂O = Dehydration reaction

6. CH₃ -CH₂ -COOH + NaOH → CH₃ -CH₂ -COO - Na⁺ + H₂O = Neutralization reaction(reaction with base)

7. CH₃ -COOH + CH₃ -OH → CH₃ -COO- CH₃ + H₂O = Esterification reaction

(1) Carbon has a unique ability to form strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms, this results in formation of big molecules. This property of carbon is called catenation power. The carbon. has 4 valence electrons. That means each individual carbon atom can bind to 4 other atoms of almost any variety and each of those 4 can bind to 4 others atoms. This leads to formation of organic compounds having incredible variety and complexity - short chains, long chains, ring structures, branched structures and so on.

 (2) One, two or three covalent bonds can bond together two carbon atoms. These bonds are called single covalent bond, double covalent bond and triple covalent bond respectively. Due to the ability of carbon atoms to form multiple bonds as well as single bonds, the number of carbon compounds increases.

(3) Carbon being tetravalent, one carbon atom can form bonds with four other atoms (carbon or any other). This results in formation of many compounds. 

 (4) Isomerism is one more characteristie of carbon compound which is responsible for large
number of carbon compounds.

This characteristics leads to existance of very large number of carbon compound.

Saturated hydrocarbons are classified into three types:

Saturated hydrocarbon	Example	Structure
1) Straight chain hydrocarbons	Propane C3H8
2)Branched chain hydrocarbon	isobutane C4H10
3)Cyclic hydrocarbon	Cyclohexane C6H12

Four functional groups containing oxygen as the heteroatom in it are as follows:
1. Alcohols: The functional group, which is present in alcohol, is -OH. The IUPAC group suffix of alcohol is –ol.
Structural Formula :

– O – H

Condensed Structural Formula : – OH

Example: Methanol

2. Aldehydes: The functional group, which is present in an aldehyde, is -CHO. The IUPAC group suffix of an aldehyde is –al.
Structural Formula :

Condensed Structural Formula : – CHO

Example: Formaldehyde

3. Ketones: The functional group, which is present in a ketone is >C=O. The IUPAC group suffix of a ketone is –one.
Structural Formula :  

Condensed Structural Formula : – CO –

Example: Acetone

4. Carboxylic acid: The functional group present in a carboxylic acid is -COOH. The IUPAC group suffix of a carboxylic acid is –oic acid.
Structural Formula :

Condensed Structural Formula : – COOH

Example: Acetic acid

Three functional groups containing three different hetero atoms are as follows:
Carboxylic acid: The functional group present in a carboxylic acid is -COOH. Here, heteroatom is oxygen.
Structural Formula :

Condensed Structural Formula : – COOH

Example: Acetic acid

Amine: The functional groups present in an amine are -NH₂ Here, heteroatom is nitrogen.

Structural Formula :

Condensed Structural Formula : – NH₂

Example: Methylamine

Halides: The functional group presence in halides is X(halogen= F,Cl,Br,I).Here, heteroatom is chloride.

Structural Formula :

– O – H

Condensed Structural Formula : – OH

Example: Chloromethane

Vinegar is 5-8% solution of acetic acid ( Ethanoic acid ). It is basically produce by the process of fermentation of ethanol through ethanoic acid in the presence of bacteria .

Uses of Vinegar are:

• It is used in the preparation of the food .
• It is used in pickling.
• It is used as folk medicine material.
• It is used as a household cleaning agent

Gasohol is a mixture of 90% gasoline and 10% of anhydrous Alcohol (Ethyl Alcohol). It is commonly known as the alternative fuel or a motor fuel.

Benefits of gasohol are :-

• It is cheaper.
• It is eco-friendly.
• It has higher performance.
• It doesn't freeze in typical conditions.

Uses of gasohol are:

• It is used in a fuel or petroleum Industry
• It is used in a automobiles industry
• It is used as a flexible fuel vehicle, because it do not freeze in typical conditions.

Catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.

Example: